Assessment

Assessments are used to measure and improve student learning, guide future teaching, and provide feedback to students. There are assessments for, as and of learning. Diagnostic assessment is used to measure student knowledge and is usually conducted prior to the unit is begun. It assists teachers in understanding what the students already know to adjust their teaching strategies. Formative assessment is carried along throughout the completion of the unit, usually through informal activities. They provide an indication of student progress and are also factored in when adjusting future learning activities. Summative assessments are the most formal and completed at the conclusion of a unit. They are a final assessment of student understanding and are often used in student reports of grades. The teacher is able to compare all three assessment types throughout the unit to identify student progress and make a judgement on learning activities required to meet the syllabus outcomes for each unit. When designing and selecting assessment activities, it is always important to take into consideration the skills and outcomes that the teacher wants to assess. These skills should be addressed in the unit to ensure students are prepared to complete the assessment to the best of their ability. The marks given are then translated into a letter grade which appears on the student’s report.

Learner Diversity

The existence of learner diversity calls for differentiation in teaching activities. Recognising that no two students learn the same, and that a classroom is made up of many students who have different learning needs, teachers will need to plan for learning in many different methods. Part of identifying the best course of action to address learning needs is understanding the way the classroom has been built up. By taking into consideration the intellectual, socioeconomic, Indigenous or non-Indigenous status, multicultural (EAL/D), gender, health, and literacy level status’ of each student, the teacher is equipped to understand what learning methods are best suited for the class. From there on, the teacher is able to create individualised learning plans, if a student is falling behind, based on the factors which may affect their learning. For example, students who come from a low-socioeconomic background may experience financial hardship and therefore may not have access to a laptop. Classroom activities which involve the use of online resources becomes inaccessible to them. As a result, they are not meeting the requirements of the course as they cannot utilise all the information that their peers are receiving. To address this issue, the teacher could provide paper copies of worksheets, ensure all students work in pairs and share a device, and set homework that does not involve the use of a laptop. The school could provide laptops for students to borrow if they do not have their own.

Curriculum, Planning, and Assessment

This blog is extracted from my in tutorial reflection task

This image is from unsplash.com

The unit of work we designed was based on the English stage 5 unit outcome ‘EN5-8D a student questions, challenges and evaluates cultural assumptions in texts and their effects on meaning.’

Backwards mapping and constructive alignment were useful to our design of the unit as it allowed us to create a goal and then cater lessons towards meeting that outcome. As opposed to working chronologically (creating lessons and finding how they fit within the syllabus), we took advantage of the syllabus and used it as a guide for creating our lessons. In doing so, we ensured that the outcome was thoroughly met. This method also provided the opportunity to measure student knowledge at regular intervals through assessments to ensure that students were understanding the content at every point in the unit.

When planning the lessons, we found it useful to write a goal that we hoped to achieve at the conclusion of the unit. This goal was based on the unit outcome and was broad enough to encompass the content required to meet the outcome. From there onwards, we planned lessons and assessments specific to the content in the syllabus. Our formative assessment was a written essay in which students had to ‘discuss the importance of context in understanding a text’. Although we did not manage to find a suitable text during our tutorial time, we agreed that the text should be written by an author who is a part of the ATSI community to meet specific syllabus requirements. The inclusion of a group presentation also facilitated the need for a formative assessment task and allowed students to demonstrate their understanding at the mid-point of the unit. Therefore, lessons can be adjusted to meet specific needs and address concerns.

Working backwards facilitated a smoothly run unit of work, in which smaller goals (each content point) were met after one or two lessons, and the overall goal (the outcome) was met at the conclusion of the unit.

Alaghmand, S., Mozaffar, F., Hosseini, S. B., & Sedghpour, B. S. (2018). Investigating Factors Affecting Students’ Self-Actualization At University Spaces. Revista Romaneasca Pentru Educatie Multidimensionala, 10(1.SP), 1. https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/32

Altman, K. I., & Linton, T. E. (1971). Operant Conditioning in the Classroom Setting: A Review of the Research. The Journal of Educational Research, 64(6), 277–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1971.10884161

Batra, S. (2013). The Psychosocial Development of Children: Implications for Education and Society — Erik Erikson in Context. Contemporary Education Dialogue, 10(2), 249–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973184913485014

Churchill, R., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F., Keddie, A., Letts, W. J., Lowe, K., Mackay, J., McGill, M., Moss, J., Nagel, M. C., Shaw, K., & Rogers, J. (2019). Teaching: Making a difference. Wiley.

Coban, O., & Atasoy, R. (2019). An examination of relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy perception on ICT and their attitude towards ICT usage in the classroom. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 14(1), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v14i1.3636

Dail, J. S., & Vásquez, A. (2018). Google Drive: Facilitating Collaboration and Authentic Community Beyond the Classroom. Voices From the Middle, 25(4), 24–28.

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071001001

Donnelly, D., McGarr, O., & O’Reilly, J. (2011). A framework for teachers’ integration of ICT into their classroom practice. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1469–1483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.02.014

Duschesne, S., & McMaugh, A. (2019). Educational pscyhology: For learning and teaching.

Ertuğrul, Ö. F., & Tağluk, M. E. (2017). A novel machine learning method based on generalized behavioral learning theory. Neural Computing and Applications, 28(12), 3921–3939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-016-2314-8

Fedeli, L. (2021). Teachers’ perceptions of the role of technologies for inclusion. Results from a special needs teacher training course. Ricerche Di Pedagogia e Didattica. Journal of Theories and Research in Education, 21-36 Paginazione. https://doi.org/10.6092/ISSN.1970-2221/11585

Fisher, M., & Crawford, B. (2020). “From School of Crisis to Distinguished.” The Rural Educator, 41(1), 8–19. https://doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v41i1.831

Hanus, M. D., & Fox, J. (2015). Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Computers & Education, 80, 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.019

Hean, S., Craddock, D., & O’Halloran, C. (2009). Learning theories and interprofessional education: A user’s guide: Learning theories and interprofessional education. Learning in Health and Social Care, 8(4), 250–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-6861.2009.00227.x

Helle, L., Tynjälä, P., & Olkinuora, E. (2006). Project-Based Learning in Post-Secondary Education – Theory, Practice and Rubber Sling Shots. Higher Education, 51(2), 287–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-6386-5

Kihoza, P., Zlotnikova, I., Bada, J., & Kalegele, K. (2016). Classroom ICT integration in tanzania: Opportunities and challenges from the perspectives of TPACK and SAMR models. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology, 12(1), 107-128. Retrieved from https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy2.acu.edu.au/scholarly-journals/classroom-ict-integration-tanzania-opportunities/docview/1792791474/se-2?accountid=8194

Moon, B. (2012). Remembering rhetoric: Recalling a tradition of explicit instruction in writing. English in Australia, 47(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.3316/aeipt.192556

Nespor, J. (1988). Theoretical Observations on Applied Behavioral Science: Schooling and Learning: The Place of Learning in Social Theories of Education. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 24(3), 277–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886388243005

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. Australian Professional Standards for Teachers. Standards. (2018). https://www.aitsl.edu.au/teach/standards

Tondeur, J., van Braak, J., Sang, G., Voogt, J., Fisser, P., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2012). Preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology in education: A synthesis of qualitative evidence. Computers & Education, 59(1), 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.009

Young, M. R. (2005). The Motivational Effects of the Classroom Environment in Facilitating Self-Regulated Learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 27(1), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475304273346

Image sourced from unsplash.com

Learning falls into 5 categories: knowledge, memorising, acquiring, making sense, and interpreting reality (Churchill et al., 2019). It is both a process, as explored in the cognitive theory, and a product, as expressed in the humanist. Assessment may not always accurately measure learning, therefore I believe that formative assessment is just as essential as summative. Not all students begin and complete the school year at the same point, so the progress they make is a far more accurate representation of their abilities.

As a teacher-in-practice, I find myself not fully identifying with one educational theory over another. Rather, I see myself (and in practice have done so) using a ‘blended’ approach in which I incorporate elements of many methods. I believe that each theory offers a different perspective in learning behaviour management, but there are obvious flaws found in every theory. The diversity that is present in each classroom cannot always be addressed with one approach or strategy. Rather, approaches must be formed throughout the school year to meet the individual learning needs in the classroom (Churchill et al., 2019). As discussed in my blogs, I have applied and observed behavioural, cognitive, and humanist teaching strategies in the classroom whilst on placement. I found that each of these strategies offer a unique and essential practice to the classroom. I believe that a good teacher is flexible in their pedagogy and can recognise that there is no perfect teaching approach.

In line with the cognitive and humanist learning theories, I believe that learning is a progress that is heavily influenced by external factors. Students should feel that they belong to the classroom, regardless of their academic achievements (Churchill et al., 2019). The teacher plays a major role in ensuring all students are comfortable with the learning environment to support their academic progress. I also believe that the occasional use of operant conditioning in the classroom can be beneficial to strengthening and weakening certain behaviours, although I prefer to encourage students to develop intrinsic motivation to work towards their goals.

Based on my experience, each class group is made up of students with different needs and the ability to differentiate tasks and employ strategies to meet individual learning needs is necessary as a teacher. Being able to identify learning needs before the completion of a summative assessment is important to ensuring students are maintaining a steady progress. To do this, organisation of lessons and setting goals with the class is crucial. Once these needs are met, a range of resources can be implemented to assist meet goals. The inclusion of ICT can greatly assist within the classroom when used appropriately (Fedeli, 2021). Just as students never stop learning, teachers should always strive towards learning more about their practice and how to effectively present information to maximise student achievement. This involves attending regular training, including staff development days, and maintaining a personal commitment to updating knowledge on the latest teaching strategies.

My teaching philosophy will continue to develop with my teaching (and learning) experiences. Regardless of how it changes, I hope to make my lessons engaging and as memorable as possible!

• WWCC
• Anaphylaxis training
• Safeguarding course completed
• Youth Ministry Safeguarding and Child Protection Training completed
• 4 week placement completed at a co-educational secondary Catholic School in Nov-Dec 2020
• Work experience completed with Australian Catholic University (Campus Ministry: Student Ministry Assistance. AskACU: Service Assistant)
• Involved with Parish as a Youth Coordinator and Minister

Image sourced from unsplash.com

THE COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Image sourced from unsplash.com

The cognitive learning theory is focused on understanding how students learn to cater to the learning needs in the classroom and alter teaching methods accordingly. It includes linking current and previous knowledge to develop new ideas and learning behaviours (Nespor, 1988). The different memory sources, including the episodic, semantic, and procedural memories, can be ‘tapped in’ to assist in the learning process. This teaching approach emphasises the importance of understanding the processes involved in learning and how to store information from the sensory to the long-term and retrieve it back into the working memory. Its goal is to retain information using schemas and assimilation of previous knowledge to new content (Duschesne & McMaugh, 2019).

An activity I planned for my Year 10 English class was focused on adaptations and appropriations of texts. As we were studying Macbeth, I divided the class into smaller groups and gave each group an act of the play. Students had to create and perform an adaptation of the scene by changing the characters, settings, and plot, while maintaining the same concepts found in the act. This involved students creatively thinking about how to portray their acts. I supervised each groups’ progress but didn’t interfere with the problem-solving element of the task which is part of the cognitive approach (Helle et al., 2006). Many resolved to making popular culture references or used real world events to display their acts. At the conclusion of each performance, the class discussed and completed a worksheet on what was happening in the scene and how it related to the play. The goal of understanding the plot and the importance of context was achieved at the end of the lesson.

This exercise assisted with assimilating current knowledge with new information and understanding the plot of the play in a familiar context. The concept of ‘schema activation’, in which the episodic memory is used to relate foreign knowledge with already understood content, is relevant to the theory as well (Duschesne & McMaugh, 2019). I also attempted to utilise familiar concepts to introduce new ideas, for example, by using a funny image or quote.

The implementation of this cognitive-based activity aligns with Standards 1.2 and 2.2 as it focuses on learning as a process of rehearsing and recalling memories (AITSL, 2018). The teacher decides what is necessary to be memories (for example, a scaffolding technique) and facilitates the process. It also meets Standard 4.2 as the teacher plays a role in assigning relevant classroom activities which assist in the assimilation and memorization process (AITSL, 2018).

A major disadvantage to the cognitive behavioural theory is the lack of consideration it has for other factors which may impact information retention. The students who make up the classroom have diverse learning needs and therefore may display an inability to recall information as easily as their classmates. The cognitive method heavily relies on the rehearsing information however repetition can become mundane and reduce the motivation to learn (Duschesne & McMaugh, 2019). Unlike other behavioural theories, the results of the cognitive theory cannot be observed or measured.

Rather than applying the cognitive theory to memorising specific information, it can be used to learn schemas to better equip students in future study (Young, 2005). For example, the PEEL method of writing is taught as a general scaffold. Students can take the structure of PEEL and apply it in future writing.

HUMANISM AND EDUCTION

Image sourced from unsplash.com

The humanist approach to learning is perhaps the most wholistic approach. Teachers who apply its principles take into consideration all elements, factors, and needs which have an impact on learning behaviours.

Erik Erikson developed a psychosocial approach towards education covering 8 phases of psychosocial development. Erikson identifies the adolescence stage (12 to 18 years old) as one in which individuals form their personal identity, where success and failure dictate sense of self (Batra, 2013). Albert Maslow identified the idea that needs which are not met determine behaviour, thus valuing the importance of the physiological, safety, belonging and esteem needs required to achieve self-actualization. Self-actualization is the point which is reached when a person is at their greatest potential after having other needs satisfied (Alaghmand et al., 2018).

I assisted a Year 11 English studies class which was made up of approximately 15 boys. I was informed that many of them were often missing class as they were on work placement. To cater to their absence, my supervising teacher prepared booklets which were used over a few weeks and the students would complete the booklet at their own pace. Considering many were behind on the work and the class was generally below the grade average, a learning support teacher would visit the classroom to assist students weekly.

As the humanist approach takes into consideration all factors which may influence learning and growth, it aligns with Standard 1.1 (AITSL, 2018). Teachers who implement it in the classroom identify learning needs and what elements may be influencing them, therefore aligning with Standard 6.1. Standard 6.3 is met, as observed by the inclusion of a learning support teacher (AITSL, 2018). As learning needs are identified and met, the humanist approach requires organisation of activities and learning programs, and therefore meeting Standards 3.2 and 4.2 (AITSL, 2018).

An argument used in opposition to the humanist approach, often within English studies departments, is the lack of instruction to facilitate traditional writing skills to ‘support’ students reaching self-actualization through literacy (Moon, 2012). The humanist approach disregards the structures which uphold literacy skills, leaving students to their limited experiences of language. This is especially detrimental to Aboriginal students, many of whom are below the literacy standard and would benefit from instruction and assistance with skills and techniques (Moon, 2012). Without proper instruction in English studies, the literacy gap remains open.

With the main argument presented being that the humanist approach leads to a lack of instruction, a strategy to address this issue would be to apply the approach but only to an extent. The approach takes into consideration Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Schools can present many initiatives to ensure that certain needs are met, such as providing breakfast, and facilitating social days for students (Fisher & Crawford, 2020). Schools have a major role in assisting students to achieve self-actualization, however teachers must remain assertive in their roles as educators. Teachers must therefore stick to the structure of their curriculum to ensure all students are progressing towards achieving all the outcomes (Moon, 2012). If a student presents negative learning behaviours that could be impacted by external factors, the teacher should begin a conversation with the student, and possibly parents/guardians and the school, to address these issues.

INFORMATION COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM

Image sourced from unsplash.com

The use of Information Communications Technology (ICT) in the classroom has the potential to create both positive and negative learning experiences. When incorporated purposefully, it provides the opportunity to support authentic learning, engage students and promote higher order thinking, amongst other benefits.

Google Drive, a tool substitution with functional improvement, is part of the augmentation stage of the SAMR model, and if used correctly, it had the potential to redefine and transform the learning experience (Kihoza et al., 2016). An activity which I planned for my Year 9 English class was to collaborate on Google Slides to create a power point presentation. Without ICT, the task would have perhaps been a poster presentation, with research being extracted from physical books. With ICT, students had the power to collaborate, conduct research online, and share their presentations for their peers to access. The sharing feature also meant the teacher could supervise students online and monitor their progress.

The implementation of ICT meets the Standards 2.6 and 3.4 as it employs the use of technology and ICT-based strategies in the classroom (AITSL, 2018). Standard 4.5 states that ICT should be used safely and responsibly, and by using Google Drive, the teacher can monitor student progress online (AITSL, 2018). The teacher could also sit at the back of the classroom to monitor students’ screens and supervise their laptop use. When accessed, ICT can cater to specific learning needs, including students with injuries/disabilities who cannot write and use the typing function, and students with low literacy and numeracy levels using specific applications to develop their skills (Dail & Vásquez, 2018). Due to the range of uses and possibilities for differentiation ICT has, it meets the Standards 1.5, 1.6 and 4.1 (AITSL, 2018).

Many students in schools (especially those in low socioeconomic areas) do not have access to personal technologies. This can make activities which depend on laptop use difficult. There were times where I did not have access to a cable to connect my laptop to the projector. Although the solution was as easy as borrowing one from the school’s ICT support team, it highlights the impact a missing cable could have on the ability to teach, and if any element of an ICT tool failed during an activity, it often meant that the lesson was disrupted. The use of ICT is also dependent on teachers being aware of how to use it, however some critics may disapprove of its use (Coban & Atasoy, 2019). Teachers who are unable or refuse to use ICT in their teaching activities risk placing their students at a disadvantage as it can be used to address learning needs and promote higher order thinking (Fedeli, 2021).

The technological pedagogical content knowledge structure is based on the idea of educators having the skills needed to assimilate ICT into the classroom as a tool to assist with the learning process (Donnelly et al., 2011). Preservice teachers need to be equipped with the skills required to adapt their lessons to incorporate ICT (Tondeur et al., 2012). In addition, many schools have staff dedicated to ICT support who run training sessions. While not all teachers may approve of its use, it is ideal to have lessons which blend both traditional and ICT-based activities to ensure students receive the advantages from both approaches. This also addresses the issue of failed ICT. Lessons which aren’t based solely on ICT function ensures that teachers are prepared for whatever issues they may encounter.

BEHAVIOURISM WITH A FOCUS ON OPERANT CONDITIONING

Image sourced from unsplash.com

Behaviourism (founded by John Watson) focuses on the study of behaviour to better understand learning. Its design is simple in stating that behaviours can be manipulated through conditioning (Hean et al., 2009). Classical conditioning (founded by Ivan Pavlov), and operant conditioning (founded by B.F Skinner) are two forms of behaviourism which can be applied to teaching methods. Classical conditioning is based on the idea that a neutral stimulus can become conditioned by associating it with an unconditioned stimulus (Ertuğrul & Tağluk, 2017). Operant, however, incorporates positive and negative reinforcements to shape behaviours.

The teacher has an important role in modifying behaviour through their response to positive and negative behaviours (Altman & Linton, 1971). The inclusion of the merit/demerit system that the school I was placed at had allowed me to award students with merits for exceptional work and acted as a motivation for others to achieve a higher quality of work and to behave positively. On the other hand, a demerit was used to punish and deter negative behaviours. Verbal reinforcement was also given to praise/punish behaviours and was diversified to ensure there was variety in my responses.

The use of this system aligns with the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) 3.5, 4.1 and 4.3, as it helps to set clear expectations and consequences for behaviours, provides an incentive for students to participate, and manages student behaviour (AITSL, 2018). These merits/demerits were recorded in the students’ diaries, which were signed off each week by their parents, acting as a form of communication between the school and the parent to identify achievements and issues, addressing Standards 3.7 and 5.5 (AITSL, 2018).

Students in my Year 10 English class had a seating arrangement, however some decided to ignore their placements. At the beginning of the lesson, I announced that students had 10 seconds to move to their designated seats, otherwise they would be awarded a demerit. Students quickly moved and I was able to begin the teaching activity without behavioural issues.

Reflecting on my experiences, I realise the lack of depth that operant conditioning has in the classroom. Students who consistently depended on the stimulus struggled to engage with the content and tended to exhibit negative behaviours. In the long term, it could become tiring and excessive to constantly be awarding merits/demerits and providing verbal reinforcement for the same behaviour. Rather than the student learning and adapting positive learning habits, they only presented them when offered an extrinsic incentive (Deci et al., 2001).

While this method was effective in enforcing classroom management strategies, it failed to encourage the development of permanent learning behaviours and set any goals. Students who were dependent on these strategies to complete any work lacked intrinsic motivation and without the stimulus they would fail to engage with the content. A direct solution to this issue would be to encourage students to develop intrinsic motivation to achieve learning activities. The short-term inclusion of educational games in the classroom helps develop intrinsic motivation, as well as support skill development (Hanus & Fox, 2015). However, if used in excess, it can have a negative impact on academic success, and even reduce motivation in the long run. Therefore, the use of a variety of learning activities, including an occasional game, would help assist the development of intrinsic motivation and move away from the need for rewards.